1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates to a feed composition yielding improved feed efficiency. The composition is produced by inducing a residual electrical charge in livestock feed or in certain components of livestock feed. The composition is especially useful in improving the feed efficiency of cattle.
2. Description of the Prior Art
As long as animals have been raised for the purpose of food production, man has searched for the ideal foods and methods for feeding the animals. Most effort has been directed to identifying foods having a proper nutritional balance which is thought to promote efficient weight gain. Additionally, some attention has been given to the manner of preparing the food, such as cooking, micronizing, flaking, or rolling grain products. Little, if any, attention, however, has been given to the electrical or ionic properties of the food or liquids to be ingested by animals.
The functions of inorganic ions in biological systems have been the subject of many studies. Some of the more important functions of inorganic ions in biological systems include (1) the activation of enzyme systems; (2) the stabilization of proteins in solution; (3) the development of electrical excitability; (4) the regulation of the permeability of membranes and (5) the maintenance of a dynamic state of isotonicity between cells and the extracellular fluid.
The properties of ions depend essentially on their valency and atomic number and hence on their tendency to form complexes with water and organic molecules. Since proteins are large molecules, they have potentially many free positive and negative groups and these may be associated by electrostatic interaction either with water or with ions of opposite charge. The presence of salts in solution modifies these electrostatic associations.
In addition to generalized effects on stereochemistry, certain ions seem to have more specific functions in the activation of enzyme systems. Various types of function are possible. An ion which activates an enzyme may (a) form an integral part of the enzyme molecule; (b) serve to link enzyme and substrate; (c) cause a shift in the equilibrium position of the reaction, or (d) act indirectly by releasing ions which inactivate the enzyme system.
In almost all animals sodium is the main cation of the extracellular fluids. It therefore accounts for the major part of the cation osmotic pressure of the blood and interstitial fluid. Change in the permeability of the cell membranes of excitable cells is responsible for the development of action potentials.
High concentrations of sodium inside cells are deleterious as sodium inhibits some enzyme systems, particularly those associated with glycolysis, and is less active than potassium in activating others. As a monovalent ion sodium tends to offset the action of small amounts of divalent ions in decreasing the permeability of cell membranes.
Potassium is the major cation of cells. In addition to the part it plays in the establishment of the membrane potential of cells it activates certain enzyme systems such as pyruvic phospherase and fructokinase. An adequate concentration of potassium must be present in the extracellular fluid if sodium extrusion from cells is to occur normally. In cells the potassium is not uniformly distributed, its concentration in mitrochondria being higher than in the general cell sap.
Perhaps the most important function of calcium is that it decreases the permeability of cell membranes to water and ions. This effect is especially important in the case of excitable tissues. Muscles in calcium free media initially display spontaneous activity, later they lose their excitability. Isolated nerves and muscles swell in salines lacking calcium, probably because the mechanism responsible for the extrusion of sodium can no longer match the faster rate of sodium entry through the more permeable cell membrane. Calcium is also associated with the processes involved in the shortening of the contractile elements of muscles and part at least of this effect is due to the activation of myosin A.T.P.-ase, the enzyme reaction which provides the energy for contraction. Calcium also probably plays some part in the development of action potentials as repetitive stimulation of nerves increases their calcium concentration.
High concentrations of calcium are deleterious to cells as some enzyme systems are inhibited by this ion. Thus it antagonizes the activation of pyrophosphatases by potassium.
As a divalent ion calcium is important in stabilizing colloids particularly the intercellular cement which binds cells together. In this function magnesium behaves similarly though usually less effectively. In the absence of calcium and magnesium cells tend to separate.
Calcium increases the release of the transmitting agent at the neuro-muscular junction of vertebrates and this action is antagonzied by magnesium which inhibits the release of acetyl choline.
When it is present in high concentration, magnesium inhibits the neuro-muscular junction unless sufficient calcium is present to neutralize its effect. Magnesium is present in the cells of terrestrial vertebrates at a concentration of some 50 times that in the blood. It is not uniformly distributed in cells having a higher concentration in the mitochondria and nuclei than in the sap. High concentrations of both magnesium and calcium depress the oxygen consumption of cells, and possibly this effect may be linked to their action in decreasing the permeability of membranes as the effect is offset by increases in the concentration of potassium. Magnesium is an essential activator of many of the enzymes involved in energy transfer, hence its presence in the mitochondria. Among these can be included A.T.P.-ase, pyruvic phosphatase and fructokinase.
With respect to hydrogen ions, the chemical properties of proteins change with pH since they are ampholytes behaving as acids on the alkaline side of their isoelectric point and as acids on the acidic side. The hydration of proteins is governed by the pH, the water absorbed being at a minimum at the isoelectric point. However, as already mentioned, the presence of other ions may modify the degree of hydration. Enzymic activity is usually at its maximum close to but not always at the isoelectric point. Thus pH change may affect a variety of factors such as colloid osmotic pressure, inhibition of water by gels and enzyme activity. An increase in the acidity of the blood is followed by a loss of potassium from cells as a result of an exchange of hydrogen for potassium ions and an inhibition of the sodium pump.
Rather less is known of the functions of inorganic anions apart from the buffering actions of phosphates and bicarbonates in cells and in the blood.
High concentrations of phosphates tend to inhibit calcium actions possibly by lowering the solubility of the calcium. Thus cells are more likely to separate in low calcium media if high concentrations of phosphate are present.
Bicarbonate stimulates the respiration of isolated tissues and the presence of this ion in the bathing medium can increase the extrusion of sodium from cells. Presumably it is for the same reason that the retention of potassium by isolated muscles is improved when bicarbonate is present in the bathing medium.
Although the above-described functions and properties of inorganic ions in biological systems are well known, the ionic valence of components of livestock feed has never been related to the ability of an animal to absorb and utilize the livestock feed.
It is estimated that in the United States alone, 20 million cattle are finished each year for slaughter. The costs of production of beef products continue to increase at an alarming rate. For the production of beef to be competitive with the production of other meat products, the cost of beef production must be held in check. There is, accordingly, a distinct need in the art for methods and products for decreasing the costs of beef production by increasing the growth rate and the feed to gain ratio in cattle.